The body is comprised collectively of CELLS and together the cells make up different areas.  ‘Like’ cells placed jointly together form tissues and organs. Some tissues can be present in several organs.  Simply put, tissues can be part of the infrastructure of an organ. Let’s use the liver as an example: The liver is composed of typical recognizable cells called hepatocytes (‘cytes’ is a Latin root meaning cell). The liver is more than a compilation of hepatocytes, just as a town or city is more than a collection of houses. The liver has several conduits built into it to deliver blood, to drain off bile and to also provide a type of scaffold into which the hepatocytes can be packed (in much the same way a store room in a factory has fitted shelves to keep order). These infra-structures, the blood or vascular network, the bile ducts and the scaffolding are all built with other cells - some of which may be found serving similar purposes in different organs of the body.  These other cells form tissues and are part of the whole organ.

Tissues need food and oxygen to survive and this is provided by way of a different tissue that comprises of a variety of cells known as “blood”. This is an essential component for all organs in the body and it is intimately involved in the distribution of HIV.  Some of the cells in your blood carry oxygen so you can breathe and some are there to fight infections. The ‘soldier cells' that fight infections are called ‘white blood cells’ and their purpose is to stop viruses and other sicknesses from entering the body. (Refer to flow diagram further on).

Surprisingly, the largest organ of our body is our skin. It’s not usually thought of as an organ, but that’s exactly what it is.  Not only is it complex, it also has many essential functions and one such function is the protection against viruses including HIV. Unbroken skin is our natural protective barrier against many infections. 

The nature of our skin does change however with each different type of function. Let’s use the skin on our face as one example – when we smile or scowl the skin is capable of changing shape. The surface of facial skin is influenced by the activity of hormone action – men grow beards, women don’t (not usually anyway!) It is also influenced by emotions – we blush or we exhibit pallor with fear.  Both are manifestations of the changing blood flow in response to neural stimuli. In the context of HIV however, it is a fact that a medical condition such as eczema can destroy the integrity of our skin’s barrier against infection - just as the thin membrane covering our eyes (the conjunctiva) provides no barrier against marauding viruses. 

This means that blood splashes from an HIV infected individual can invade our body if the skin is not intact - as is the case with eczema or exceptionally thin membrane - conjunctiva. This important fact should be remembered in accident situations or contact sports.

Viruses cannot exist as free living individual organisms in their own environment. They are under constant threat from the body’s immune system and they do not posses a metabolic system, so they cannot sustain themselves sufficiently to perform that most essential element of survival - namely to reproduce.

Microscopic infectious agents which cause disease may be classified in several ways but at present we will not consider parasites such as malaria or bacteria which are responsible for a wide range of diseases from tuberculosis to the common boil.  Most of these can be treated successfully with antibiotics.  Let’s rather focus on viruses. The majority of us have visited a doctor at some stage feeling like “death warmed up”.  However, after a thorough check up and a few minutes of contemplated silence you will most likely be told “it’sprobably a viral infection”. 

Our interpretation of this diagnosis is, "I don't know what is wrong with you, but you'll be fine in a few days” and most often you are.  Whatever it was that was bugging you may have caused a fever, chills, headaches and perhaps even a rash. Your body dealt with it and you well again. Most often, this is how a viral infection is.

Viruses however, can sometimes have
devastating consequences.   
                                         
Let’s use a few examples: With the rabies
virus, death is highly probable. With the
Poliomyelitis (Polio) virus, you may well be
crippled for life and if you were to visit the
Congo and you contracted Ebola fever, all
your internal organs would liquefy from this
particular virus.  Unlike bacteria, which
often responds to an appropriate antibiotic
or cocktail of antibiotics, viruses are never
cured by antibiotics and the body has to
use its own immune system to deal with them.

The second characteristic of viruses is that unlike bacteria they have NO metabolic system of their own. A fresh steak left out of the refrigerator will “go bad” or smell “off” within a few hours - depending upon ambient temperature (the surrounding temperature).  This deterioration happens from the effect of the bacteria using its own metabolic process to decompose the meat. Antibiotics will block the bacteria's metabolism and “starve” the bugs.

The third and major characteristic is that viruses are composed of a minimal number of genes wrapped in a protein envelope which protects the genes from the environment and often enables its entry to a fresh host cell. Some viruses also contain one or two enzymes (chemical catalysts) required to initiate its parasitic relationship and to take over its new host's genetic systems. All life forms contain both DNA and RNA - except viruses alone, they contain DNA or RNA but never both.

A commonly shared factor between humans and other creatures is their survival instinct. Furthermore, we are driven to reproduce and once having produced our progeny, humans and animals will protect their offspring through their most vulnerable stages by providing them with essential life tools.  This will ensure their survival.

Viruses have the simplest of structures, and they too are able to achieve these objectives. HIV consists of merely a few genes, the minimum required for its purpose which are wrapped together with a few enzymes in a single layer of protein shaped like a cone. This structure is then encased in a spherical “envelope” derived from the membrane of the host's CD4 cell (white blood cell) in which the virus was spawned. (Refer to the diagram further down).  To maintain its spherical nature of the viral particle, and to provide some protection for the bumpy ride in the blood stream, the space between the cone and the envelope is inflated in much the same way as a motor car tyre, or perhaps more accurately - the yolk of an egg, the shell and the liquid protein (the white of an egg).
Once released from the host's CD4 cell, this virus particle has no chance of entering a fresh uninfected cell for the simple reason that by virtue of its composition, it carries a net positive electrical charge as do the cells of the body.  This means there is an electrical repulsion caused by ‘like' charges whenever it gets too close (as will the two same sides of a magnet - they repel each other and will not adhere).

This problem is overcome by the virus because it has a large number of protein spikes protruding through its outer membrane - or envelope. These protein spikes (much like the spokes of a bicycle wheel with the rim removed) can catch onto “receptor molecules” on CD4 cells - much like the action of Velcro.

‘Retro’ implies backward.  Does this mean retroviruses are mentally or physically challenged? They don't have a brain, therefore it can’t be the former and they encircled the globe in just a matter of years so it's unlikely to be the latter. The answer lies in this fact: In 1953 two young students named Watson & Crick along with their associates, discovered the physical character of the nucleic acid polymer.  Today this is known as DNA.  Francis Crick, an exuberant young man, had proposed the hypothesis of a flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to proteins - which he said is the central biological dogma. The AIDS virus reverses this flow of genetic information, so there is a retro-flow from RNA of the virus to DNA of the cell, facilitated by an enzyme called ‘reverse transcriptase’ in the HI virus. This is essential to its life cycle.  In fact, the HIV cannot replicate unless it takes this step backwards from RNA to DNA and it thus becomes its own Achilles heel.  (As you’ll read in the book). This is the process that has become the focal point in AIDS therapy.

VIRUSES are just one type of infection that may result in you becoming sick. One of these viruses is called the ‘HI' virus. This can enter your body and then makes its way into the ‘soldier’ cells or white blood cells (also called CD-4 cells) where it reproduces. Once this happens, the white blood cells more often than not DIE OFF. White blood cells are used to fight infections and if they all die off, there wont be any left to fight other sickness that can enter the body and cause major illnesses. This is then termed as AIDS.
AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome and is caused by the HI virus (Human Immunodeficiency virus). By the end of 2007 close to 50 million people worldwide may have died from this pandemic.

Someone that is HIV positive does not necessarily have AIDS but someone that has AIDS is always HIV positive

A method known as ‘Nucleic Acid Sequencing’ is used to show genetic relationships called phylogenetics.  This method is widely used in biology to estimate the closeness of genetic diversions between sub-species etc.
When applied to the two types of HIV it has shown that HIV-2 probably arose from a transfer of virus (termed a species transfer) from the sooty mangabey monkey and HIV-1 from the chimpanzee.

The term AIDS represents the late stage of infection by a retrovirus called (HIV) or Human Immunodeficiency Virus.
Infection – (acquiring the virus) is through the transfer of body fluids (blood, semen, vaginal fluid, breast milk, during birth, infected needles etc - from one infected person to the other. The virus is carried within these fluids as a free virus and also in any infected white blood cells.

You may have picked up from this flow chart that many white blood cells (those which the virus infects) have a relatively short life span and you are probably asking yourself “does this mean that when the white blood cells die, the virus inside the cell dies off as well?” The answer is yes, it does.  But there are usually so many viral particles floating around the body in various states of suspension and stages of reproduction, that re-infection of white cells takes place the whole time. Not to mention the continual replication taking place in the human DNA material and including those that are there lying dormant.

You do not die of AIDS.

The cause of death would rather be from the complications associated with the HI virus. The virus weakens the immune system leaving it vulnerable to secondary infections from other pathogens such as bacteria and other viruses - for example those that cause pneumonia and lung diseases

As research into HIV/AIDS has advanced the medication anti-retrovirals (ARV’s) that are available are quite effective and nowadays people living with HIV can live long, healthy and productive lives.  Although, there has been some controversial politics over the years surrounding anti-retrovirals (ARV’s), especially alternative methods such as eating beetroot and showering as a means of prevention! 

ANS : ACQUIRED IMMUNO DEFICIENCY
This is a virus that affects the immune system of the body and causes deterioration in ones health. This then allows other sicknesses to invade the body.  This is usually what the infected patient dies from.

ANS. Human Immunodeficiency Virus.  This is a virus that causes the human immune system to dysfunction, and results in the body’s defences (white blood cells) dying off so that it cannot fight other sicknesses.

ANS. As yet it’s still not curable.  However, the transmission may be prevented from entering another person – for example, practicing safe sex. Once a person has contracted HIV and started taking anti-retrovirals (ARV’s), the deterioration of the patient is halted. This is explained in detail in our publication 'Understanding HIV/AIDS'.

ANS: A CD-4 cell is one type of white blood cell that is found in the body. It is primarily the major cell, ironically, that the HI virus is able to invade and indirectly destroy. (Refer back to the flow chart at the beginning).

ANS: The HI virus contains RNA (one form of genetic material), while the human CD-4 cell contains DNA. The HI virus is unable to replicate itself, so it enters the human CD4 cell and converts itself with enzymes it carries along to DNA. From here it slots into the human DNA and is replicated by the human body. Once this is done it changes back to RNA, re-assembles and leaves the body to re-infect. It is also able to stay 'inert' in the human DNA until it becomes active again. (This is described in easy to understand terms in our book ('Understanding HIV & AIDS').

To fully comprehend biology today, it’s important that one is well-versed with the rudiments of DNA and RNA - as it was by those who pre-dated this significant 20th century biological event, when James Watson and Francis Crick announced their breakthrough in the understanding of genetics from the University of Cambridge in 1953.

The building blocks that form the DNA are called nucleic acids and are linked together by phosphorus atoms and a sugar molecule made from carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. The replication of the nucleic acids form a polymer, in much the same way as a string of pearls creates a necklace.  In fact, a pearl necklace is a polymer of pearls.

Essentially, all the genetic information that determines who we are, resides in our DNA.  This amazing molecule, a chemical composed of only 5 different types of atom, namely - oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and phosphorus.

It is astounding when we contemplate other life forms, such as a lowly earth worm ruining the surface of our bowling green, or a frog leaping into a pond, and realising that they also depend upon this simple chemical substance called DNA.   The resemblance in the same species (different gender) sharing genes is incredibly strong.

The DNA contained for export in our sperm is far too valuable to be left lying around, so we deliver it like an efficient courier service would, as close to the point of union as possible with the complementary component (in this case the female egg).  Unlike the lowly frog, who just squirts it into the pond over the eggs left by his unromantic female on the pebbles at the bottom of the pond. Or, by the even lowlier earth worm that cannot be sure of even finding a lady worm - he deposits his sperm on another segment of his body where he keeps some female organs to complete the union.

Information, as we are all aware, needs to be used and shared.  So although kept in the nucleus for safe keeping, copies of functional genes are made in the form of RNA and are exported to the cytoplasm where the protein making machinery is kept and where it is replicated.

WHY IS THERE NO VACCINE FOR THIS VIRUS AND YET THERE ARE VACCINES AGAINST OTHER VIRUSES SUCH AS FLU?

ANS: Most vaccine experiments today are geared towards the receptor proteins on the viral surface. Due to mutations and differences in the constituents making up the actual proteins, vaccinations and associated antibodies are difficult to use in the fight against HIV/AIDS.

DNA is the blueprint for many functions in our body, such as the creating of offspring, the manufacturing of all cells during our lifetime (this will ensure replacements due to wear and tear) and the manufacturing of all the metabolic processes that keep us alive.  It’s crucial that this important information be safe-guarded in much the same manner as reference works are maintained in essential libraries - never loaned out, only photocopies may be permitted. In higher organisms (and we define ‘higher organisms’ as any life form) composed of more than one cell, the DNA is confined within a special cellular compartment called the nucleus.

Let us recall briefly some important information we’ve discussed. Genetic material may consist of either RNA or DNA - both of which are made up of short components called nucleotides. These small segments are in turn made up of individual elements such as phosphate, a sugar molecule and a base.  It’s the sequence of the individual bases that determines the type of protein (made up of different nucleotides which in turn make up amino acids) or genetic material produced.  Viruses may be either RNA (such as the flu virus) or DNA (Herpes virus).  Surprisingly enough, there is even a herpes virus that infects frogs!  Almost everyone and everything is susceptible to viruses.  The plankton that whales feed on can also be infected with a virus and so the whales migrate away from the infected food at various times of the year.  Diphtheria (a bacteria that infects cattle), becomes incredibly virulent or pathogenic when infected with a specific virus.  Not all viruses replicate in the host’s nucleus and not all integrate themselves into the host’s chromosome.  Retroviruses such as HIV do. These types of viruses are much harder to eliminate by the body's immune system as they now have a ‘safe house' inside the nucleus. Those viruses such as the flu virus, replicate in the cells cytoplasm and are easily removed by the body’s defence mechanisms. Because it is an RNA virus it ‘mutates' or changes shape often and far easier when compared to DNA viruses.   Hence vaccines against strains of flu are always difficult.

CAN ONE GET HIV/AIDS FROM TOILET SEATS, MOSQUITOES, KISSING OR SWIMMING POOLS?

ANS: No to all the above - with the exception of kissing (if there’s the possibility of a large amount of saliva with a high viral load present and the other partner has open sores in his or her mouth). As far as mosquitoes are concerned……..

WHAT IS THE PROBABILITY OF CONTRACTING HIV FROM BLOOD TRANSFUSIONS?

Nowadays all blood is screened for the presence of AIDS, however during the eighties, screening processes were limited resulting in a lot of highly infected patients. Especially at risk were haemophiliacs with a large percentage becoming HIV positive during the eighties. Plasma, which is extracted from blood transfusions, is now also treated with chemicals and or heat to destroy any pathogenic or unwanted viruses present.

WHAT IS THE PROBABILITY OF CONTRACTING HIV FROM A NEEDLE PRICK FROM A NEEDLE PRICK?

ANS:It is estimated that the risk of HIV infection from a hollow-bore needle prick is a 1 in 300 probability. This is very different from intravenous drug users sharing needles. These needles have blood along the needle length and more often than not in the syringe as well from the back flow. This makes transmission of the virus VERY EASY. (Refer - post exposure prophylaxis (PEP)

ANS:This occurs late in a pregnancy (in the last week or so) or during childbirth itself.  In the absence of any treatment there seems to be approximately a 25% chance of transmission to the baby. Should treatment be initiated prior to giving birth and a caesarean section performed, this would reduce the risk of transmission to the baby to about 1%.  The virus can still be transmitted through breast milk to the child however.

As the majority of biologists will know, most life forms evolve from ‘like’ species adapting to a new milieu. Although there are many theories prophesising answers as to the origin of this pandemic. Tracing the chronology of any disease or evolutionary question is always extremely difficult with many absurd ideas originating from a wealth of people around the world. Is it possible that this virus has always been present from antiquity (or do we mean iniquity) onwards, perhaps even as far back as five hundred thousand years ago when Homo erectus roamed the earth?

Was it in a less virulent state?  Or was it simply lying dormant until some global environmental change took place and unleashed this monster? We must ask ourselves this question, “has man changed in terms of iniquity since antiquity?” One such idea is that it was a man-made disease and specifically introduced into Africa to curtail the ‘out-of-control’ growth rate - possibly even by various associated industries.  But evidence shows that isolated cases of AIDS were occurring, though unrecognized, in the 1960s. Today's ‘genetic engineering’ capability was not even dreamt of at that stage. And neither had the discoveries of various molecular tools such as restriction enzymes or the enzymes used to join nucleotides. In fact, the key enzyme of the retroviruses, reverse transcriptase, was only hypothesized by Temin and Baltimore at about that time so the conspiracy theories involving the CIA and other evil agencies - like many conspiracy theories are ‘taboo’.

Kenneth Kaunda, the one time President of Zambia, famously stated “I don't care where it came from – I am concerned with where it is going”. The reality is that despite intensive research costing billions of US$ over many decades, we are still no nearer to a solution. The incidence in different population groups keeps changing but the overall prevalence continues upwards.

One of these theories looks to the possibility that HIV/AIDS originated from the mutation of the Simian immunodeficiency Virus found in primates such as chimpanzees - but not forming the disease in their natural host. When the virus is transferred to another species or primate it may become pathological. These animals are often viewed as a form of food by humans or other animals (chimpanzees often eat monkeys), which may be an opportunity opening for transmission through blood and tissue exposure.  During the late 1950's, the polio vaccine was prepared in chimpanzees and administered to over a million Africans over a period of 4 years, ending in 1960.  Were these chimps already infected with this initial SIV virus -which in its original state does not infect humans - and may have however mutated to a strain capable of doing just this? This fantasy/hypothesis was considered as a probability and even perhaps possible origin of HIV.  The claim was based upon the fact that the Polio Virus as a vaccine source was grown in monkey cells. After an investigation was conducted a few years ago by the Royal College of Medicine in London, a report was published - one believes in “The Lancet”, where the possibility of this claim was discounted. If there had been any basis for this theory, one would have expected there to have been some evidence of clusters of AIDS in children because they were after all, the target of Polio vaccination programmes. 

Likewise the CIA laboratory also produced virus hypothesis.
The first reports of AIDS (GRID) appeared in 1981, but retrospectively cases have been identified going back to the early 1960's.

If a virus was to be constructed in a laboratory, it would need certain essential tools such as: restriction enzymes and the PCR technology, together with cloning.  It was in April 1983, during a car trip with a girlfriend, that Karry Mullis hit upon the idea concerning PCR.  So the disease was around for almost 2 decades before the tools became available to make Frankenstein the creator!

Due to the logistical aspects of gathering information, it is difficult to obtain up to date and accurate statistics.  It is believed however, that just over 70% of the total HIV infected population lives in Africa. It’s interesting to note that this is home to around 10% of the world’s population. In South Africa, at the time of writing, the population figure stands at about 45 million and of this there are 5 million people infected with HIV/AIDS.  An alarmingly fact is that about 70% of all mortalities are adults aged between 15-49 years of age - are from AIDS related diseases.

In historical terms for pandemic infectious diseases – unquestionably, HIV/AIDS rates high as a threat to the human population demographics. But it is by no means the worst ‘disease crisis’ the world has had to face. In fact, so far as response capability and development of strategies goes, HIV has the characteristic of slow development.  This is far different from the catastrophic pandemic waves of infection that characterised the ‘black death’ in the 15th century. In time to come, historians may well look back on this epoch as the time of major change in social structures of the developing nations of the world.  The devastating ‘black death’ was the cause of the depopulation in Europe – this was also the death knell for the feudal system which kept the majority of the population at that time as virtual slaves of the “landed gentry”. The massive de-populating (within a period of about 4 years) of approximately one third of the working class, created opportunities for survivors, placing them in a position to bargain wages for their services and by so doing, reduced the power of the feudal lords bringing greater social stability.